Prewriting :The human touch in Reporting

The human touch in Reporting

In working with sources, a reporter:

*Shares information, if possible
*Translates their jargon
*Is polite but persistent
*Maintains a certain distance

A good reporter makes regular contact with his or her sources.
She goes to the well when she's thirsty, but she also goes to the well when she's not thirsty. There is no substitute for actually being there, for personal contact. See your sources, speak to them when you need something from them, but more importantly, when you don't need anything. 

1. One of the most important qualities that a reporter must have is an ease around strangers. Always be alert to the common ground that you share with the people you deal with. Mention these topics in your conversations with them. Familiarity doesn't breed contempt. It lowers barriers. 

2. A reporter has to answer the question, "What's up?" with
more than, "Not much." Put sources on the receiving end of
information. The FBI approach—"We ask the questions, mister"—does not work for a reporter. A reporter is an information broker. Share information when you can.

3. With this said, you also have to be careful. You must learn to walk a fine line between getting close but not too close. As Walter Lippmann said, "There has to be a certain distance between a reporter and the source, not a wall or a fence but an air space." You serve the reader, not the source. 

4. After months on a beat, working with the same sources, you will begin to think like them and talk like them. You will be sympathetic to their point of view. Be wary of this and of their efforts to use you. It is likely and legitimate that they will try to persuade you of the merit of their views, to sell you on their programs. You will have little contact with your readers, but it is them you represent.

5. The language of your source is probably not the language of your readers. Bureaucrats, scientists, educators and lawyers have their own jargon. Learn this jargon but translate it into standard English for your readers.

6. If you have obtained information from a source on the understanding that it is off the record, then it is. Remember, a source is a source for life. You may change beats, newspapers, even cities, yet your reputation will follow you. The only way to be a successful reporter over the long haul is to operate honestly. If you don't, you will be without that most valuable of all commodities, good sources.

7. Make one more call. Ask your source, "Who else can help me?" "Who holds an opposite view?" Work down the organization chart. If possible, talk to the policeman who made the arrest, not the supervisor; the teacher rather than the principal.

8. Be polite but persistent with your sources. Insist on a responsive answer to your question. Follow slow-developing stories by checking periodically with your sources. If the event or issue is still on their agenda, it probably should be on yours as well.

Prewriting:Harvesting the news

Harvesting the news

Reporters harvestthe news by:

*Personal observation

*Researching the written record

*Interviewing people

News reporters gather information in three ways: by interviewing people, by researching the written record and by observation. The better you are at these, the better your stories will be. This newsgathering triad underlies all good reporting and good writing. In fact, good information, even poorly written, is better than soufflé writing, or writing with no substance.

1. The more ways you gather information, and the more information you gather, the better your story will be. You will move closer to the "actual reality" of the event. Remember your goal is to use any legal and ethical means to learn what's really going on. 

2. Let's start with the simplest type of news gathering, the story gathered in only one of the three ways. It is based on what
you are told, rather than what you discover for yourself. This is source-controlled, source-originated journalism. Let's call it
level 1 journalism.

3. Level 1 stories result from handouts, press releases, press conferences, speeches and statements. They result from what someone tells you. It is surface journalism. It is the work of a clerk, not a reporter. This type of reporting doesn't have to be bad. It can be information from the city as to when the trash will be picked up, or when to register to vote.

4. But level 1 journalism has its problems. The material can be one-sided. It can be offered by the source for personal, political or economic gain. If the newspaper is filled with this kind of material, the reading public becomes apathetic and distrustful.

5. Worse than being one-sided, level 1 journalism can be wrong. Frequently, people don't know what they are talking about, and sometimes they lie. So, what's a reporter to do? Be skeptical. Good reporters question what they are told. They check and double check. They rely on what they are told, but they improve upon it by talking to more than one person, by searching the written record, by trying to see for themselves. As President Reagan said of the Russians, "Trust but verify."

6. A word of caution: There is a difference between skepticism and cynicism. A skeptic is one who wants proof, but he or she is not prejudiced against face-value explanations. A cynic, on the other hand, refuses to believe face-value explanations and is ready to ascribe almost evil motives to those he or she covers. A good reporter is skeptical but not cynical.

7. When you take what someone tells you, and supplement it with information from your own research, your own observations, or with what others tells you, you move to level 2 journalism. You shed "air and light'' on the subject, to use Lincoln Steffens' phrase. You "climb the stairs," according to A.J. Liebling. Remember the sign in the Los Angeles Times office: GOYA/KOD, Get off your ass, knock on doors.

8. By operating on the information you have been told, you move from level 1 journalism closer to the "actual reality." You provide background, details, reaction from others, and your own observations as verification for what has been provided.

9. Suppose you were sent to cover a speech by the director of a university writing center on the subject of student writing. If you went to the speech and reported strictly what the speaker said, that's level 1 reporting. If you talked with tutors, students, professors, other writing centers, if you visited there yourself, if you provided a history of the center, then that's level 2 reporting.

10. If you take it one step further, if you attempt to answer the so what? question, if you provide some information on the causes and consequences of the issue, then that is level 3 reporting. Level 3 reporting tells the reader why things are as they are, why they work or don't work.

Prewriting : Art of intervewing

The art of interviewing

During the interview:

*Look your subject in the eye
*Sit forward in your chair
*Respond to answers
   with a nod
*Listen carefully
*Smile

The interviewer strives to learn the 'actual reality':

*Not just the 'reportable reality' the subject freely shares
*Or the 'private reality' that is shared but off-the-record

There are three ways to gather information for your story—research, observation and interviewing. Of these, interviewing is clearly the most important. It can be done in person, over the phone, and now even by e-mail. It can be extensive or just a few questions. In whatever form, it is the key to the stories you write. Your ability to talk to people is the difference between being a mediocre reporter and a good one.

1. An interviewer once asked Vivian Leigh what part she played in the movie, Gone With the Wind. Leigh ended the interview before it started. Contrast that with the interview A.J. Liebling had with jockey Eddie Arcaro. Liebling began the interview by asking Arcaro why his left stirrup was longer than his right. One got a good interview, the other didn't. One was prepared, the other wasn't.

2. Preparation allows you to ask good questions and signals your subject that you are not to be dismissed lightly. Read all that is available. Talk to those who know the subject. As writer Tom Rosenstiel said, "A common ingredient of the superb interview
is a knowledge of the subject so thorough that it creates a kind
of intimacy between the journalist and the interviewee."

3. What is the tentative theme for your story and how will this interview fit that theme? When you have answered those questions, prepare a list of questions. The best way to have a spontaneous conversation is to have questions ready. That way you can relax, knowing that you will not miss an important topic.

4. Phrase your questions in a neutral way. Not: Don't you agree that this speaker should be banned from campus? Mix open-ended questions, such as, "Tell me about your love for antique cars," with closed-ended ones, such as, "How old are you?" The closed-ended ones elicit basic information; the open-ended allow the interviewee to reveal information or feelings that you did not anticipate.

5. Decide how you will dress. You would dress differently for a hockey player than for the mayor. Ask yourself, how will my subject be dressed? Avoid anything in your dress or grooming that could be considered impertinent, flashy, sloppy or rebellious.

6. Think of your meeting with the subject as a structured but friendly conversation, not an interview. As writer Studs Terkel said, "I realized quite early in this adventure that interviews conventionally conducted were meaningless. The question-and-answer technique may be of value in determining favored detergent, but not in the discovery of men and women. It was simply a case of making conversation and listening."

7. Try to establish a rapport with the person early on. You may want to wait a bit before pulling your notebook out. This meeting stage may determine how the rest of the interview will go. Do you share a common interest or friend? If so, mention that.

8. Look the subject in the eye and listen carefully to his/her answers. Be sure to smile. A smile, they say, is lubrication for the words and collaborator of the eyes in contact. A smile helps both you and your subject relax.

9. When the source is speaking, nod or make some verbal remark to show you are listening and understand. Sit on the edge of your chair and lean forward. This is a posture that projects an eager, positive attitude.

10. Observe and record the person's body language, mannerisms, dress, physical features, distinctive characteristics and interactions with others. These allow you to paint a word picture for your reader and may reveal something that is not being said. Observe and record the sights and sounds of the surroundings. Take good notes during the interview in a handwriting you will be able to read later. Take too many notes rather than too few.

11. Focus on what the source is saying, not on what you will ask next. Your next question will be better if you heard the answer to the last one. Listen critically. Do you understand what the source is saying. If not, ask the source to repeat or explain. Listen for what isn't said. Is the source avoiding a topic?

12. Don't interrupt, don't ask long questions, don't talk too much, don't challenge too early in the conversation. You're there to hear opinions, not offer them. Nevertheless, it can help to build rapport if you reveal something of yourself. Offer your own thoughts or observations, but sprinkle lightly. 

13.Control your physical actions and mental attitude. If the subject senses that you disapprove of him or his opinions, the interview is doomed. If the subject wants to take you on a tour of her home, office, factory, garden, etc., accept the offer and record what you see.

14. Begin with easy questions, perhaps biographical ones. Ask
for examples or anecdotes. Use the list of questions you have prepared and return to it frequently. As Anthony deCurtis,
former editor of Rolling Stone, said, "Interviewing is a lot like talking, but you have to guide the conversation. You have to
know what you want and go about getting it."

15. If the subject takes the interview in an unexpected direction, go with her/him. But remember, you are in charge of the interview. Make sure you accomplish your goals and be assertive if necessary. Stop after one hour. Be alert to the fact that the best material sometimes comes when you have reached the end and thanked the subject for their cooperation. Be sure to ask what the future holds.

16. Make accuracy your goal. Be sure your quotes are accurate. If not, paraphrase. Ask for correct spellings. Don't pretend to know something that you don't. Summarize for the subject in your own words some of his main points. For example, you might say, "Let's see if I understand you. You mean..."

17. Tell the subject you will be calling back later to check facts (not quotes) and do so. Make the call when you are almost finished with the story. Use it as a second interview. Ask about areas you did not understand, or about areas that will be a part of the story but were not covered well during the original interview.

18. Tape record the conversation if time permits and the story demands. Is this a profile? Does your subject have a distinctive way of speaking? Is this a controversial topic? Will the presence of a recorder put a chill on the conversation? If you decide to use a recorder, ask permission of the subject. Place it off to the side, but where it can be seen. Make sure it is in good working order with good batteries. Use it as a backup to your regular note taking.

19. Assume that the conversation is "on the record." If the subject asks for parts of it to be "off the record," try to convince him/her otherwise. If unsuccessful, make sure you and the subject understand the ground rules. Does "off the record" mean you can use the material, but not with her name attached to it? Can you go to someone else and get the information on the record? Or does "off the record" mean you cannot use the information, even without his name attached, and you can't go to someone else to get the information?

20. Direct quotes from your subject are essential for your story. They allow your reader to "hear" the person you are writing about. They also create the impression of objectivity, that you, the reporter, are simply telling the world about something that happened. But quotes must be 100 percent accurate. If you are not certain of every word of the quote, remove the quote marks and paraphrase. However, it is permissible to "clean up" bad grammar within a quote.

21. Make sure the quote is revealing of your subject. Avoid direct quotes if the material is boring, if the information is factual and indisputable or if the quote is unclear. Make sure the quote advances the story and does not repeat the material above it.

22. Often the advice given for interviewing makes it sound like a game of wits with your subject. They've got something you want, and they won't give it to you. You are advised to "flatter them," "make them feel comfortable," "lead up to the tough questions with easy ones," "don't take no for an answer." What's implicit here is that there are several realities that you can report. A good reporter reports at one level. A great reporter reports at another level, closer to what I call "actual reality." Strive to discover during the interview the "actual reality."

23. Figure that there is material that your subject knows, will tell you and will let you report. That is the "reportable reality." There is another reality that the subject knows, will tell you, but will not let you report. This is the "private reality." There is a third reality that the subject knows but will not tell you, much less let you report. Strive to discover through every legal and ethical means this "actual reality" and report it. Remember, journalism is what somebody doesn't want you to print. Everything else is publicity.

Beginning JOurnalism Prewriting, Writing and Rewriting

Prewriting

Successful reporters are:

*Smart
*Quick
*Curious
*Pleasant
*Honest
*Courageous

To be a successful reporter

The best reporters I know are bright, persistent, honest, personable, curious and courageous. If you asked them to explain their success, this is what they might say:

1. A good reporter is a generalist, able to deal with a number of topics and talk with a variety of people. He or she can see the unusual, the ironic, in the everyday. She can think through all the possibilities and organize a large amount of information to find the important parts.

2. A good reporter is quick. Once he is assigned a story, he goes after it. He makes the calls and keeps trying if he doesn't make contact. He remembers the sign that once hung in the Los Angeles Times newsroom: GOYA/KOD. Get off your ass/knock on doors.

3. A good reporter is curious. He or she takes pleasure in the new, and in the old, in the history or precedent that got us where
we are. He enjoys reading and appreciates the details.

4. A good reporter is pleasant. She adopts a friendly nature with those she meets. She is a grateful guest, with a belief in the basic goodness of people. She conveys to those she meets that she is tolerant of them and their ideas, even though she does not like them or what they stand for. She subordinates her ego and is a good listener.

5. A good reporter is honest. He seeks the truth and acts independently. He does what he says he's going to do, and doesn't do something he promised to avoid. He returns his calls, and he's willing to say no. He's obsessed with accuracy and double checks his facts with call-backs. He sees both sides to every issue. He doesn't treat people as a means to an end.

6. The good reporter is courageous. She approaches strangers. She takes pleasure in being good, in being first. She develops a skin to deflect the inevitable criticism. She is willing to make a mistake and willing to write something that may hurt someone. She has a capacity for tempered outrage.

7. As Jon Franklin, reporter, author and teacher, said: "Back when I first started, I thought intelligence was the most important attribute a reporter could have. I have since changed my mind. You do have to be intelligent, but the big thing is courage. Courage to open your mind and let the whole damned confusing world in. Courage to always be the ignorant one, on somebody else's turf. Courage to stand corrected. Courage to take criticism. Courage to grow with your experiences. Courage to accept what you don't understand. Most of all, courage to see what is there and not what you want to think is there."

The nature of news

Some of the lesser-known factors that determine
the news are:

Prejudice of management
Pressure from advertisers
Size of paper
News hole

What is news? Charles A. Dana, editor of the New York Sun, once defined it as, "Anything that interests a large part of the community and has never been brought to its attention before." In other words, news is what people are talking about. News is new. As Evelyn Waugh described it, "News is what the chap who doesn't care much about anything wants to read."

1. Put another way, news is a change in the status quo. But does a change in the status quo guarantee that an event is newsworthy? Suppose Philip, a normally reliable 10-year-old, is late for dinner. That may be of consequence in his household, but it is not news. What if he is three hours late for dinner? Then he may be missing and that is news. Then his tardiness takes on community import, especially if he has become the victim of foul play. So, as this example illustrates, news is not just a change in the status quo.
It is a change of consequence in the status quo.

2. In a very real sense, news also can be defined as what
reporters and editors say it is. They are the gatekeepers,
allowing the accounts of some events, but not others, to reach
the reading public. And there are other factors that sometimes can
determine whether an event is news. These include the prejudice of the management, the size of the paper, pressure from advertisers and the news hole, or the space allotted to news.

3. Still, news professionals agree on at least seven main factors that help them determine if an event has consequence, if it is news. These are:

a) Impact—How many people does the event affect? How seriously does it affect them? 

b) Proximity—An event will be more important if is closer to the readers. An earthquake in a far-off land is not as interesting as one that is close to home.

c) Timeliness—Is the event fresh? Is it new? The news must be timely to be of use to readers. 

d) Prominence—Names make news, and big names make big news. Ordinary people are intrigued by the doings of the rich and famous.

e) Novelty—This is the new in news, the unusual. The "firsts," "lasts" and "onlys" have been the staples of the news business for many years.

f) Conflict—Conflict has been the currency of great literature, drama and movies for all time. From the stories of Shakespeare to those of Disney, conflict has played a crucial role. Newspapers are no different.

g) Audience—Who is the audience? The answer to that question helps determine whether an event is news at all, and if it is, where it will be played in the paper.